Tangent Line to a Function

Finding the tangent line to the graph of a function at a single point can be extremely useful when interpreting the information that the function represents. So first to describe what a tangent line is: A tangent line of a function at one point shows the direction that the function is going at that point (Fig. 1). Theoretically the tangent line is only touching the curve of the function at one single point, or the point of tangency. To find the equation of the tangent line, certain bits of information are required. One of these bits of information required is the slope of the tangent line. To find the slope of the tangent line of a function at a single point, the equation is used, assuming that â€Å"a† is the single point on the equation. The rest of this paper will be used to describe, through graphical methods, why this equation finds the slope of the tangent line. The slope of any linear equation can be described as rise over run, y over x, the output of a function over the input of a function, or the dependent variable over the independent variable. All of these terms mean the same thing: the Y value on a graph over the X value on the graph. If the equation is examined closely, then it is clear that it represents a slope. The equation has the change of two output values, g(x) – g(a), over the change of two input values, x – a. The equation uses the change of an output, and the change of an input because two points on the graph is the minimum amount of information required to create a line. Fig. 2 and Fig. show how the two points on a graph can create an accurate tangent line. Fig. 2 shows that two points on the function can create a secant line with a slope that is approximately close to the slope of the tangent line, but it is not accurate enough. Fig. 3 shows that as the second point, D, on the function moves closer to the original point, C, the slope of the secant line approaches the slope of the tangent line. This movement shows how the slope of the secant line is equal to the equation. All the equation for the slope of the secant line is the change in the Y value over the change of the X value. As point D gets closer to point C, the reason why finding the tangent line has to be a limit equation, and not just the secant line equation, becomes clear. The denominator of the secant slope function makes it so x cannot equal a. If x were to equal a, then the equation would be undefined because the denominator cannot equal 0. So the slope of the tangent line is the limit as D approaches C.

Carbohydrates Lab Report Essay

Introduction Carbohydrates are essential in foods as an energy source (starch is the main source of human calories), a flavouring (simple sugars are usually sweet) and as a functional ingredient (sucrose allows ice cream to be soft in the freezer; xanthan gum thickens a low-fat salad dressing). Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient found in many foods and beverages. Most carbohydrates are naturally occurring in plant-based foods, such as grains. Food manufacturers also add carbohydrates to processed foods in the form of starch or added sugar. As with all our approaches to food ingredients/constituents we will first examine the structure of carbohydrates and then try to elucidate how their structures allow them to function as they do. As their name suggests, carbohydrates basically made up from sugar and water, i.e. Cx(H2O)y, although this ratio is often not strictly true and occasionally other atoms may be present. The carbons are arranges in a chain (most often 5-6 atoms) functionalized with alcohol groups. The terminal carbon either carries either an aldehyde or a ketone functional group. Carbohydrates are classified based on size of base carbon  chain, number of sugar units, location of C=O and stereochemistry. Classifications of carbohydrate are monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharide is the smallest possible sugar unit. Examples include glucose, galactose or fructose. When we talk about blood sugar we are referring to glucose in the blood; glucose is a major source of energy for a cell. In human nutrition, galactose can be found most readily in milk and dairy products, while fructose is found mostly in vegetables and fruit. When monosaccharides merge together in linked groups they are known as polysaccharides. Disaccharide is two monosaccharide molecules bonded together. Polysaccharides are polymers. A simple compound is a monomer, while a complex compound is a polymer which is made of two or more monomers. Disaccharides are polysaccharides – â€Å"poly†¦Ã¢â‚¬  specifies any number higher than one, while â€Å"di†¦Ã¢â‚¬  specifies exactly two. Examples of disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. If you bond one glucose molecule with a fructose molecule you get a sucrose molecule. Sucrose is found in table sugar, and is often formed as a result of photosynthesis (sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll reacting with other compounds in plants). If you bond one glucose molecule with a galactose molecule you get lactose, which is commonly found in milk. Starch, glycogen, dextran and cellulose are polysaccharides. Polysaccharides differ not only in the natural of their component monosaccharides but also in the length of their chains and in the amount of chain branching that occurs. Polysaccharides function as storage materials, structural components, or protective substances. Thus, starch ( which exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin ), glycogen and other storage polysaccharides, as readily metabolizable food, provide energy reserves for cells. Chitin and cellulose provide strong support for the skeletons of arthropods and green plants, respectively. In this experiment those activity that had been carried out means to determine the carbohydrate class of an unknown by carrying out a series of chemical reactions with the unknown and known compounds in each class of carbohydrate such as the Molisch test (general CHO), Barfoed’s test (monosaccharides), Fehling’s test (reducing sugars), Benedict’s test (reducing sugars) and Iodine test (amylose). ACTIVITY 3.1, MOLISCH TEST: A GENERAL TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES OBJECTIVE: To test the carbohydrate solution MATERIALS: 1 % of carbohydrate solutions( lactose, glucose, starch, sucrose, cellulose, fructose, apple and cabbage ), distilled water(as control tube), concentrated sulphuric acid, Molisch reagent. APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, dropper, 5ml pipette, glass rod, test tube rack, fume cupboard CAUTION: Molish reagent contains concentrated sulfuric acid , which is toxic and corrosive. It can cause severe burns. Prevent eye, skin clothing, and combustible material contact. Avoid ingesting the substance.If you spill any reagent or acid, immediately notify your laboratory instructor. NOTE: Do not place your thumb over the open end of a test tube when mixing its contents. Your laboratory instructor will suggest ways in which you can safely and thoroughly mix the contents of a test tube. PROCEDURES: 1. 2 ml of each of the 1% carbohydrate solutions that have been prepared is added into one set of labelled test tubes. 2. 2 drops of Molisch reagent are added to each test tube and is mixed well with a clean glass stirring rod. 3. The test tube is inclined. Then 3ml of concentrated sulphuric acid is added slowly and carefully down the side of the tube to form a layer below the sugar solution.( This step is performed inside the fume cupboard ). 4. The resulting solution did not been shook or mixed. 5. The change of the solution is observed and recorded. ( A purple ring at the interface is indicative of a carbohydrate ). 6. The test solutions containing Molisch reagent is discarded into the container provided by laboratory instructor. RESULT: DISCUSSION: Carbohydrates undergo dehydration reactions (loss of water) in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid. Pentoses and hexoses form five member oxygen  containing rings on dehydration. The five member ring, known as furfural, further reacts with Molisch reagent to form colored compounds. Pentoses are then dehydrated to furfural, while hexoses are dehydrated to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Either of these aldehydes, if present, will condense with two molecules of naphthol to form a purple-colored product. A positive reaction is indicated by appearance of a purple ring at the interface between the acid and test layers. Monosaccharides give a rapid positive test. Glucose and fructose are monosaccharide. Disaccharides and polysaccharides react more slowly than monosaccharide. Sucrose and lactose are disaccharide which also gave purple color ring. Starch and cellulose gave slightly purple color because they are polysaccharides. Distilled water gave negative test because it is not carbohydrate. A large apple has around 28-31 grams of carbohydrate. Apple and cabbage contain carbohydrate so that they gave purple ring in this test. CONCLUSION: Glucose, lactose, fructose, sucrose, starch and cellulose all are carbohydrates which give positive test for Molisch test. A sample of distilled water is prepared and tested as the controlling sample. ACTIVITY 3.2, BARFOED’S TEST:A GENERAL TEST TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MONOSACCHARIDE AND DISACCHARIDES OBJECTIVE: To distinguish the given carbohydrate solutions as monosaccharides or disaccharides. MATERIALS: 1 % of carbohydrate solutions( lactose, glucose, starch, sucrose, cellulose, fructose), distilled water (as control tube), Barfoed’s reagent APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, 5 ml pipette, pipette filler, stop watch, water bath CAUTION : Barfoed’s reagent is corrosive and an irritant. If you spill any of the solution on yourself or on the bench, immediately notify your laboratory instructor. PROCEDURES 1. 5 ml of each of the carbohydrate solutions is added into one set of the  labelled test tubes. 2. 5 ml of Barfoed’s reagent is added to each test.  3. The contents of each tube are shook well. All the tubes are placed in an actively boiling water bath at the same time. 4. After the water starts boiling again, the solutions is heated for 3.5 min. ( Timing is important since a false positive test can be obtained for monosaccharides with disaccharide, if the disaccharides are heated for more than 3.5 min thereby breaking down ( hydrolyzing ) to monosaccharides ). 5. During this period, the tubes are observed closely and any change of clarity of the solutions is noted. ( A positive test for monosaccharides is the appearance of a red precipitate of Cu?O within 1 or 2 minutes, if no precipitate forms it indicates the presence of a disaccharide). RESULT: 1% CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTION FORMATION OF RED PRECIPITATE Fructose Yes Glucose Yes Cellulose No Lactose No Sucrose No Starch No Distilled water(as control tube) No DISCUSSION: Barfoed’s test distinguishes monosaccharides from disaccharides. Positive test for monosaccharides is the appearance of red precipitate (Cu2O) within 1-2 minutes. If no precipitate formed, indicates the presence of disaccharide. The red precipitate come from the reaction between the  reduction of copper (II) acetate to copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). RCHO + 2Cu2+ + 2H2O > RCOOH + Cu2Ov + 4H+ The aldehyde group of the monosaccharide which normally forms a cyclic hemiacetal is oxidized to the carboxylate. Glucose and fructose which are monosaccharides show positive result in this test. Reducing disaccharides undergo the same reaction, but do so at a slower rate. So, the timing to heat the sample is set to 3.5 minutes. However, the samples are heated no more than 3.5 minutes to prevent the disaccharide breaking down to monosaccharide. Lactose, sucrose, cellulose, starch and distilled water showed negative result in this test. CONCLUSION: Only monosaccharide will give an immediate red precipitate in Barfoed’s test that is glucose and fructose the other remaining solutions which are cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch and distilled water do not show any changes. ACTIVITY 3.3 FEHLING TEST: FOR REDUCING OBJECTIVE: To distinguish the reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars MATERIALS: 1% of carbohydrate solutions ( glucose, fructose, cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch ), distilled water(as control tube), Fehling solution A ( 69.28 grams copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water), Fehling solution B ( 346 grams Rochelle salt ( potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate) and 120 grams sodium hydroxide in 1 litre of distilled water) APPARATUS: 5 ml pipette, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube rack, pipette filler, stop watch PROCEDURES: 1. 5 ml of carbohydrate solutions is added into one set of test tubes. 2. By using different glass pipettes, 5 ml of Fehling A and 5 ml of Fehling B are added into each test tubes. 3. The solution is heated in a boiling water bath for 5-10 minutes. 4. Red brick precipitate is formed for positive results. 5. Changes in test tubes are recorded. RESULT: Samples Result Lactose Positive-red brick precipitate Glucose Positive-red brick precipitate Fructose Positive-red brick precipitate Starch Negative-no changes Distilled water Negative-no changes Cellulose Negative-no changes Sucrose Negative-no changes DISCUSSION: Fehling’s solution is used to test for the presence of a reducing sugar. Fehling’s solution was based on the aldehyde or ketone groups in the sugar structures. A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group. the presence of aldehydes but not ketones is detected by reduction of the deep blue solution of copper(II) to a red precipitate of insoluble copper oxide. Fructose, glucose and lactose show positive result in this test. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Many disaccharides, like lactose, also have a reducing form, as one of the two units may have an open-chain form with an aldehyde group. However, sucrose, in which the anomeric carbons of the two units are linked together, are non-reducing disaccharides since neither of the rings is capable of opening. Polysaccharides (sugars with multiple chemical rings) are non-reducing sugars. Polysaccharides have closed structures, which use free atoms to bond together their multiple rings, and take a much longer time to be broken down. So, starch and cellulose which are polysaccharides have negative result in Fehling’s test. Distilled water is not reducing sugar also shows negative result. CONCLUSION: Fehling test is the common test which is used to determine the presence of reducing sugar. Fructose, lactose and glucose are reducing sugars which give brick red precipitate after the solutions are heated. ACTIVITY 3.4 BENEDICT’S TEST: FOR REDUCING OBJECTIVE: To test for reducing sugars MATERIALS: 1% of carbohydrate solutions ( glucose, fructose, cellulose, lactose, sucrose, starch ), 3M hydrochloric acid (HCl), Benedict’s reagent, distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, test tube rack, 5 ml pipette, pipette filler, dropper, stop watch, water bath PROCEDURES 1. 5 ml of Benedict’s reagent and 2 ml of carbohydrate are added to a test tube and each tube is shook thoroughly. 2. All the tubes are placed in a boiling water bath at the same time. The solutions are heated for 5-6 min. 3. Any changes in color, in the transparencies and in the formation and color of any precipitate are observed and recorded. 4. Later, 4 drops of 3M HCl are added to 5 ml of 1 % sucrose solution and is heated in the boiling water bath for 5 min. 5. 1 % starch solution is treated in the same way but the heating period was extended to 25-30 min. 6. 1-2 ml of each of solution is applied with Benedict’s test in the same manner as before. 7. The results are compared with those obtained without acid treatment. RESULT: Sugar solution Result of colour of the solution Starch Light blue Lactose Brick red precipitate are formed Fructose Brick red precipitate are formed Sucrose Light blue Cellulose Light blue + white precipitate Glucose Brick red precipitate are formed Distilled water Light blue Sucrose + HCI Brick red precipitate are formed Starch + HCI Light DISCUSSION: The Benedict’s test is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars (sugars with a free aldehyde or ketone group) such as glucose, fructose and lactose. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars; they all have a free reactive carbonyl group. Some disaccharides have exposed carbonyl groups and are also reducing sugars. Lactose which is disaccharides also called reducing sugar as it has the exposed carbonyl groups. Other disaccharides such as sucrose and starch are non-reducing sugars and will not react with Benedict’s solution. Benedict’s reagent is a mild oxidant with CuSO4, Cu (II) sulfate, as one of the reagents. In the presence of a reducing sugar, the blue solution of Cu (II) or Cu+2, is changed to a brick red/brown precipitate of Copper (I) or Cu+1 oxide,Cu2O. If there a small or large amount of the reducing sugar present, the color would range from green to brick red respectively. RCHO + 2Cu2+ + 4OH- > RCOOH + Cu2O + 2H2O Sucrose indirectly produces a posit ive result with Benedict’s reagent if heated with dilute hydrochloric acid prior to the test, although after this treatment it is no longer sucrose. The addition of  HCl hydrolysed the non-reducing sugar, as it split it up into its component monomers. The monomers are reducing sugars which gave the positive result on the second reducing sugar test. The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic bond in sucrose through hydrolysis. The products of sucrose decomposition are glucose and fructose, both of which can be detected by Benedict’s reagent, as described above. This same goes for starch. But since starch has larger component compare to sucrose so it took a longer time to hydrolyse. That the purpose of heat it in longer time compare to sucrose. Without the addition of acid to sucrose solution, starch solution, the test given is negative. The solutions remain clear blue after the addition of Benedict’s reagent and heating. Tap water is used only to show the example of negative result of Benedict’s test. Thus it will not show any changes compare to the carbohydrates. CONCLUSION: Benedict’s test is the common test which is used to determine the existence of reducing sugar. Fructose, lactose, and glucose are reducing sugars which give positive test. Starch and sucrose are non reducing sugars which give positive results after adding hydrochloric acid. ACTIVITY 3.6, IODINE TEST: FOR POLYSACCHARIDES OBJECTIVE: To test for polysaccharides MATERIALS: 0.01M iodine, 0.12M KI , 1% carbohydrate solutions (cellulose and starch) , distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube rack , dropper. PROCEDURE: 1. Few drop of 0.01M iodine in 0.12M KI added to 1% starch and cellulose solutions. 2. Any changes to the colour are observed. RESULT: 1% CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTION COLOUR OBSERVED Starch Vivid blue Cellulose Yellowish brown DISCUSSION: Starch gives positive result in Iodine test as the color of solution change from yellow to dark blue. The immediate formation of a vivid blue color indicates amylose. Vivid blue coloration forms due to the polyiodide complex formed. Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condensed through beta(1->4)-glycosidic bond. This give cellulose to be a straight polymer therefore, it can’t coil around iodine to produce blue colour as starch does. Only starch gives the color of vivid blue, this is because it contains amylase. The iodine molecules slip inside of the amylase coil. The amylose, or straight chain portion of starch, forms helices where iodine molecules assemble, forming a dark blue color. CONCLUSION: The Iodine test is used to test for the presence of starch. Starch is a type of polysaccharide carbohydrate which is made up of amylose and amylopectin. It is one of the main sources of carbohydrate and present naturally in plant. Amylose in starch form dark blue complex with iodine. ACTIVITY 2.2 SOLUBILITY AND DIGESTIBILITY TEST SOLUBILITY TEST OBJECTIVE: To test the solubility in hot water and digestion by amylase. MATERIALS: 5g of starch, 5g of cellulose, distilled water APPARATUS: Test tubes, test tube holder, glass rod, test tube rack, fume cupboard, 2 centrifuge tubes, analytical balance, cylinder, graduated pipette, pipette filler, 2 evaporator dishes. PROCEDURE: 1 5 g of starch is measured and put into a centrifuge tube;  2 40 ml of distilled of water is measured and poured into the same centrifuge  tube; 3 Step 1 to 2 is repeated by replacing the starch with cellulose; 4 Both of the tubes are heated: the tube containing starch is heated for about 2-3 minutes whereas the tube containing cellulose is heated for about 10 minutes; 5 After heating, both of the content of the tubes are allowed to cool down slightly; 6 The tubes are put into a centrifuge with 3500 rpm for 10 minutes; 7 Empty weight for both of the evaporator dishes is measured; 8 5 mL of the supernatant from both of the tubes is pipetted and poured into two separate evaporator dishes; 9 The evaporator dishes are left in the oven overnight 10 The weight of the evaporator dishes is measured again. 11 The solubility results are recorded and tabulated. RESULT: Solubility (%) = Weight of dried supernatant (g) Weight of the dried carbohydrates (g) For starch, solubility (%) = 0.0093g 50.0023g = 0.01860 % For cellulose, solubility (%) = 0.0010g 50.0027g = 0.002000 % Carbohydrates Weight of dry carbohydrates (gram) Weight of dried supernatant (gram) Solubility (%) Starch 50.0023g 24.8768g- 24.8675g= 0.0093g 0.01860 Cellulose 50.0027g 21.2150g- 21.2140g= 0.0010g 0.002000 DISCUSSION: In this activity, the solubility is defined as the percentage ratio of the weight of dried supernatant to the weight of the dry starch. Solubility can be interpreted as the amount of the dissolved compound that is present in the test solution. From the calculations done, we can see that starch, with a percentage of solubility at 0.01860 %, whereas cellulose have 0.002000 %. Starch and cellulose are two very similar polymers. In fact, they are both made from the same monomer, glucose, and have the same glucose-based repeat units. Since the sugar molecules contain the hydroxyl group or –OH, Thus it can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, which makes it soluble in water, but only to a limited extent. However, the glucose units in starch are connected by alpha linkages while the glucose units in cellulose are connected by beta linkages. In starch, all the glucose repeat units are oriented in the same direction. But in cellulose, each succesive glucose unit is rotated 180 degrees around the axis of the polymer backbone chain, relative to the last repeat unit. Although cellulose contains hydroxyl groups too, but most of them are hydrogen-bonded to each other when the microfibrils stack together, which accounts for the strength of cellulose fibers. There’s less free hydroxyl groups that can hydrogen bond with water molecules, other than those hydroxyl groups that’s present at the end of each cellulose chain, which causes the cellulose to be less soluble in water when compared to starch. CONCLUSION: Although both starch and cellulose are complex carbohydrates, which have large molecular weight size, significantly reducing their affinity for water, but the hydroxyl groups that exist in the monomers itself actually contributes to their insignificant solubility. However, the solubility will increase when these complex carbohydrates are broken down into its monomers where the hydroxyl groups can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules easily due to the reduced molecular weight and size that affects the affinity for water. DIGESTIBILITY TEST OBJECTIVE: To determine the digestibility of complex carbohydrates MATERIALS: Starch powder, cellulose powder, enzyme amylase, benedict’s solution, distilled water APPARATUS: 2 centrifuge tubes, measuring cylinder, analytical balance, pipette fillers, graduated pipettes, 2 droppers, 5 test tubes. PROCEDURE: 1 5 g of starch is measured and put into a centrifuge tube;  2 40 ml of distilled of water is measured and poured into the same centrifuge tube; 3 Step 1 to 2 is repeated by replacing the starch with cellulose; 4 Both of the tubes are heated: the tube containing starch is heated for about 2-3 minutes whereas the tube containing cellulose is heated for about 10 minutes; 5 After heating, both of the tubes are allowed to cool down slightly; 6 5 mL of starch is pipetted into a test tube;  7 Step 6 is repeated using a different test tube but a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 8 5 mL of cellulose is pipetted into a test tube; 9  Step 8 is repeated using a different test tube but a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 10 5 mL of distilled water is pipetted into the last test tube, and a drop of amylase is dropped into it; 11 20 drops of benedict’s solution is dropped into five of the test tubes; 12 Any changes occurred is recorded and tabulated. Result Samples Colours of the solutions Benedict’ s test 5 g of starch blue Negative 5 g of starch with amylase Brick red precipitate is formed Positive 5 g of cellulose blue Negative 5 g of cellulose with amylase blue Negative Distilled water with amylase Blue Negative DISCUSSION: Amylase is one of the many members of a class of enzyme, hydrolases, that catalyze the hydrolysis of starch into smaller carbohydrate molecules such as maltose (a molecule composed of two glucose molecules). Two categories of amylases, denoted alpha and beta, differ in the way they attack the bonds of the starch molecules. Alpha-amylase is widespread among living organisms. In the digestive systems of humans and many other mammals, an alpha-amylase called ptyalin is produced by the salivary glands, whereas pancreatic amylase is secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine. In the experiment, the test tube that contains only distilled water served as a control for this experiment. As for the test tubes that contain starch and cellulose without the amylase, they give a negative result for Benedict’s test, because for starch and cellulose, since both of them are complex carbohydrates, thus they have very few carbonyl groups which contribute to the compound’s reducing properties. Starch is a non-reducing sugar which shows negative result in the Benedict’s test. As for the test tube that contains starch and cellulose with the addition of a drop of enzyme, amylase, the test tube with starch gives a positive result, but not the test tube with cellulose. As we all know, enzyme amylase can only catalyzes the breakdown of starch into simpler sugars, but not cellulose. Cellulose only digested by cellulase enzyme. It is impossible for human digestive enzymes to break the glycosidic bond. Therefore, only the test tube containing starch treated with amylase gives a positive result for the Benedict’s test. CONCLUSION: Enzyme is a highly specific catalyst which can only converts a specific set of reactants into specific products. Amylase only hydrolyze the starch but not cellulose. From here, we can say that the human digestive system would not be able to digest the cellulose, because our digestive system only contains amylase, and not cellulose. Therefore in the perspective of a  human, we can conclude that the digestibility of starch is higher than cellulose, provided that the enzyme amylase is present.

Psychological persperctive in health and social care Essay

The behaviourist perspective The behaviourist perspective is an idea that we can understand any type of behaviour by looking at what the person has learned. This includes personality traits such as shyness, confidence, optimism or pessimism. Behaviourist psychologists explain all human behaviour as resulting from experience. Two key psychologists are Pavlov and skinner, although these two theorists believed that different processes were involved, they both explained all types of behaviour as being the result of learning. This is everything from shyness to aggression and happiness to depression. Classical conditioning Classical conditioning was a theory developed by a Russian psychologist called Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). He was working with dogs to investigate their digestive systems. The dogs were attached to a harness and Pavlov attached monitors to their stomachs and mouths so he could measure the rate of salivation. He noticed that the dog began to salivate when someone entered the room with a bowl of food, but before the dog had eaten the food. Since salivation is a reflex response, this seemed unusual. Pavlov decided that the dog was salivating because it had learned to associate the person with food. He then developed a theory. Food automatically led to the salivation response, since this response had not been learned, he called this an unconditioned response, which is a response that regularly occurs when an unconditioned stimulus is presented. As food automatically leads to this response, he called this unconditioned stimulus, which is a stimulus that regularly and consistently leads to an automatic response. Pavlov then presented food at the same time as ringing a bell (neutral stimulus), to see if the dog would learn to associate the bell with food. After several trials, the dog learned that the bell was associated with food and eventually it began to salivate only when the bell was rung and no food was presented. It therefore has learned the conditioned response (CR) of salivation to the conditioned stimulus (CS) of the bell. Operant conditioning This sort of learning is associated with the theories of Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 – 1990). Skinner was an American psychologist who worked  mostly with rats and pigeons, to learn some of the key principles of learning new behaviours. He used a very famous device, called a skinner box. Skinner famous device was a box which contained a lever which, when pressed, releases a food pellet into the box, thus reinforcing lever-pressing behaviour. When the rat is first placed in the box it will run around and sniff the various items in the box and at some point it will press the lever, releasing a food pellet. After a while of the repeated performed action the rat will learn this behaviour (pressing the lever) is automatically followed by the release of a food pellet (the consequence). Because the pellet is experienced as reinforcing (something the rat would like to have more of), this consequence increases the probability of the behaviour being repeated. There are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Skinner investigated negative reinforcement by running a very low electrical current throughout the floor of the Skinner box. The current can be de-activated if the rat pressed the lever. The behaviour of lever pressing was thus negatively reinforcing. For humans, this can be demonstrated by the example of using pain relief. For example, if you have aches and pains and you take a painkiller, which results in the aches and pains going away, you are negatively reinforced for taking a painkiller. Punishment occurs only when behaviour is followed by a consequence that is experienced as unpleasant. Skinner investigated this by giving the rat a small electric shock when the rat pressed the lever. The consequence of the lever pressing (the electric shock) was experienced as unpleasant, so the rat learned to stop pressing the lever. Social learning theory The effects of other individuals on behaviour There are many influences on our behaviour, for example peers, siblings, parents, television, media, sports personalities and other celebrities. Well according to social learning theory, role models are very important. While we may learn new behaviours from anyone, the likelihood of imitating behaviours is strongly influenced by the way we perceive the person performing the behaviour (the model). If we observe someone we admire behaving in a particular way, we may be more likely to imitate such behaviour. If, for example The effects of groups on behaviour Our behaviour is strongly influenced by the presence of others, however much we believe ourselves to be truly individuals in our beliefs and behaviour. Nowhere is this more clearly demonstrated than in the experiments conducted in the 1950’s by social psychologist Solomon Asch. He was interested in a concept called majority influence. This is when the presence of other people causes us to change our public behaviour or opinions because we do not want to stand out from the crowd (be different). We have a powerful desire to belong and will ‘go along’ with what others in our group say, think and do in order to FIT IN. This is what he did to test this idea. A group of six of the experimenter (people who were play-acting according to instructions) were joined by a naive participant (a genuine participant who knew nothing about the nature of the experiment) in a task that supposedly tested visual perception. The experimenter explained that the task involved stating whet her a target line. The effects of culture and society on behaviour The term culture refers to the shared values, norms, language, customs and practices of a group. Most of us tend to think of culture as being specific to different countries. It is important to understand how culture affects our behaviour in order to gain a full understanding of people we come across and those we work with. The self-fulfilling prophecy This part is an important concept in psychology that plays a big role on the way we behave towards others and expect them to behave towards us. If we believe ourselves to be worthy, pleasant and likeable then we will most definitely be polite and cheerful towards those we meet and this will create a favourable impression. In response to those who may come into contact with us view us favourably and behave in a positive way towards us, with the result that our own positive self-beliefs are confirmed. To put it another way, we are angry, full of resentment, believe the world is against us and more, then we are likely to behave in a more aggressive, confrontational or argumentative way, in which case that is how we will be viewed, which will confirm our views of ourselves and the world. Role theory Between role theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy there is a similarity, in that role theory comments that because we live within a particular culture, society and social group, we are influenced by other people. This influence helps lead us to taking up certain roles and trying to live up to the expectations that go with that role. Albert Bandura Social learning theory explains behaviour as the result of learning from people we are exposed to in our environment. We can also learn new behaviours from people we observe, either in real life or in the media. This is known as observational learning and this theory was developed by the American psychologist, Albert Bandura. The person we learn from is known as a role model, and the process of imitating is called modelling. However, we do not imitate all behaviour we observe and remember. Whether or not it is in our interests to imitate particular behaviour is influenced by characteristics of the model. If we see a model being punished for certain behaviour, we are less likely to imitate it than if we see him or her being positively reinforced. The psychodynamic approach The importance of the unconscious mind: Sigmund Freud Freud was one of the earliest thinkers to bring to public attention the idea that we are not always aware of all aspects of ourselves. He suggested that what we are aware of is represented in our conscious mind but many of our memories, feelings and past experiences are locked up in a part of our mind he called ‘unconscious’. We cannot access the contents of our unconscious, but they often ‘leak out’ in dreams and slips of the tongue. Freud believed that the conscious mind was like the tip of an iceberg – only a small part being available to awareness. Part of the unconscious that we can easily access he called the pre-conscious. This contains information not yet in consciousness but that can easily be retrieved (e.g. the name of your friends dog). The rest, well under the surface, consisted of the unconscious. Importance of early experiences The importance of early experience in determining later behaviours is clearly  illustrated by Freud’s developmental theory of psychosexual stages. He believed that we all go through several stages of psychosexual development. At every stage, the individual’s libido (energy) is focused on a part of the body that is particularly relevant at that stage. If the needs of the developing child are met at each stage, it moves on to the next developmental stage. If however, there is struggle or conflict or some unsatisfactory experience, the individual becomes ‘fixated’ (stuck) at this stage. This results in certain ways of being, or personality traits, which are carried through into adulthood and which can explain behaviour later in life. The earliest stage is the ‘oral stage’. The focus here is on the mouth and activities such as sucking, biting and licking. (You will probably have noticed that young babies seem to put everything in their mouths.) Freud believed that there could be two reasons for fixation. If the infant was weaned too early, it would feel forever under-gratified and unsatisfied and would develop into a pessimistic, sarcastic person. If, on the other hand, it was over- gratified (weaned too late) the individual would develop a gullible personality, naively trusting in others and with a tendency to ‘swallow anything’. This stage lasts from birth to roughly 18 months. If the infant successfully passes through the oral stage without becoming fixated, the next stage is the ‘anal stage’, which lasts from approximately one to three years. Here the libido is focused on aspects to do with potty training. If there is a battle with parents about potty training with the child feeling forced to use the potty before they are r eady, or feeling over – controlled in various areas, they may rebel by retaining their faeces: the child refuses to ‘go’, thus holding on to control and withholding satisfaction from the parent. This type of fixation is called ‘anally retentive’ and is associated with later personality characteristics such as obstinacy, miserliness and obsessive traits. The alternative scenario is that the child is not given enough boundaries over potty training so they take excessive pleasure in excretion and become a messy, creative, disorganised sort of person. During the ages of four to five the child passes through the ‘phallic stage’. Fixation at this stage is associated with anxiety and guilty feelings about sex and fear of castration for males. If this stage is not resolved, the theory suggests that a boy may become homosexual and a girl may become a lesbian. Freud thought these were  abnormal fixations; however most people today would not view them in this way. Between the ages of five to seven and the onset of puberty, the child enters the ‘latency stage’, which is not strictly speaking a developmental phase but a time when the focus is on s ocial pursuits such as sport, academic excellence and the development of friendships. The final psychosexual stage is the ‘genital stage’, which begins at puberty. Freud believed that the less fixated the individual has become during the earlier stages, the more easily this stage will be negotiated, resulting in the ability to form strong heterosexual relationships with an ability to be warm and loving as well as to receive love in a new, mature fashion. A second important feature of early experience is the development of ego defence mechanisms. The use of a defence mechanism allows us to block out events that threaten to overwhelm us. A final influence is that of the mind. Freud suggested that the mind (which he called the psyche) is divided into three dynamic parts. The id is a part of the mind which is totally unconscious and which exists at birth. It is focused on getting what it wants and consists of aggressive, sexual and loving instincts. It is the part of us that says ‘i want it now!’ The superego is formed as a result of socialisation and consists of all instructions, morals and values that are repeatedly enforced as we ar e growing up. It takes on the form of a conscience and also represents our view of our ideal self. The main role of the superego is to try to subdue the activity of the id. The ego tries to balance the demands of the id and the superego. It is the rational part of the mind, always seeking to do what is most helpful to the individual. Different behaviours can be understood by trying to infer which part of the psyche is dominant at any time. A person who is very submissive, guilty and always wanting to please may have a very strong superego. A person who is impulsive, careless of other people’s feelings, doesn’t think through the consequences of their actions and is perhaps inclined to aggression, either verbal or physical, probably has a dominant id. A person who can be submissive and assertive when necessary, who is bale to think about other people’s feelings but also consider and value their own needs, has probably got a strong enough ego to balance the demands of the id and the superego. They are likely to have quite a rational and realistic outlook on life. Erik Erikson Erik Erikson was a psychologist who agreed with much of Freud’s theory in so far as he thought that we developed through a series of stages. However, he thought that these continued throughout our lifetime and were essentially social in nature. He also believed that Freud put too much emphasis on our desire for individual gratification and not enough on our need to be accepted by society and lead a meaningful life. Erikson suggested that we move through a series of psychosocial crises with a different social focus at each stage. For example between birth and the age of one, the life crisis concerns developing trust or mistrust in self and others. The social focus at this stage is the mother. The humanistic perspective Human psychology looks at human experience from the viewpoint of the individual. It focuses on the idea of free will and the belief that we are all capable of making choices for ourselves. Two psychologists associated with this approach are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Abraham Maslow Maslow (1908-1970) was an American psychologist who believed that we are all seeking to become the best that we can possibly can- spiritually, physically, emotionally and intellectually. He called this Self-actualisation. He constructed a theory known as the hierarchy of needs, in which he explained that every human being requires certain basic needs to be met before they can approach the next level. Maslow believed that until our basic psychological needs are met, we will focus all our energies on getting them met and not be able to progress further. When people are well-housed, well-fed and comfortable physically, we begin to focus on our emotional needs, like the need to belong and be loved and to feel self-esteem. When our lives are such that these needs are also met, we strive to self-actualise. As Maslow said ‘A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if that person is to be ultimately at peace with their self’. What a person can be, they must be. This need we call self-actualisation. Carl Rogers Rogers (1902-1987) was particularly interested in the concept of self. There are many aspects of the self but two are especially important here. Self-concept refers to the way in which we view ourselves. This includes  physical, biological attributes like being male or female, blonde or brunette, short or tall, as well as personality traits like being kind, humble, assertive and hard working. The self -concept is formed from an early age and young children internalise other people’s judgements of them, which then become a part of their self –concept. If a child is told their silly, naughty apart of self-concept will contain these aspects. Another way of looking at it is a child is praised, encouraged to succeed and told they are valued; they will have a positive self-concept and see themselves as someone who is worthwhile and competent. Rogers believed that we also hold a concept of self, called the ideal self. This holds a view of ourselves as we feel we should be an d as we would like to be. When there is a mismatch between our actual self and our ideal self we become troubled and unhappy. The cognitive/information processing perspective This psychological perspective has gained enormous ground since the 1960’s, when the influence of behaviourism began to happen. With the development of computers came the idea that brain activity was like the operation of a computer. A great deal of research had been devoted to understanding cognitive processes such as attention, memory, perception, information processing, problem solving, thought language and other aspects of cognition. A way to understand this perspective is it relates to health and social care, we are going to concentrate on just two theorists: Jean Piaget and George Kelly. Jean Piaget Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist who initially worked on measuring intelligence. During his research he noticed children of the same age made the same mistakes in logic, however bright they were. He came to the conclusion that cognition develops through a series of stages, each new stage building on the previous one. George Kelly George Kelly (1905-1966) developed a unique psychological theory known as the psychology of Personal Constructs. He saw the individual as a scientist, making predictions about the future, testing them and, if necessary, revising them according to new evidence. A construct is a way of construing (interpreting and making sense of) reality and the environment. For example if an individual develops The biological perspective Maturational theory The theory of maturation holds that the effects of the environment are minimal. The child is born with a set of genetic instructions passed down from its parents, and its cognitive, physical and other developmental processes merely unfold over time, rather than being dependent upon the environment to mature. It is, in effect, a theory which states that development is due to nature not nurture. This is quite a contrast to the learning theory or humanistic theory, where the effects of nurture are paramount. Gesell’s theory of maturation Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) believed that development occurred according to a sequence of maturational processes. For example, development in the womb follows a fixed set of stages: the heart begins to form first, along with the rudimentary nervous system. Bones and muscles develop next and over time the organism develops into a fully functioning human being, ready to be born. As the child develops from birth onwards, its genes allow it to flower gradually into the person he or she is meant to be. The environment should provide support for this unfolding of talents, skills, personality and interests but the main thing driving this development is the maturational process. Genetic influences on behaviour Genes can affect behaviour in many ways. Some disorders, like Huntington’s disease, are caused by a single dominant gene, which either parent can pass on to their child. Others, like cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia, are caused when both parents pass on the gene for the disorder. Disorders that occur regardless of the environmental influences, such as those listed above, are genetically determined disorders. This means that the individual who inherits the gene or genes is certain to develop the disorder, regardless of the environmental factors. An example of this is Huntington’s disease. This disorder usually begins to show when the individual is aged between 30 and 50 years. Symptoms of dementia appear and the individual is likely to die about 15 years after the onset. Some of the changes in  behaviour are listed below, though this list is not comprehensive: Hallucinations and delusions Severe confusion Progressive memory less Inappropriate speech; use of jargon or wrong words Personality changes including anxiety and depression, withdrawal from social interaction, decreased ability to care for oneself and inability to maintain employment. Disorders that are not genetically determined, but where an individual’s genes may leave them with a vulnerability to developing the disorder, are far more common. A classic way of measuring the contribution of genes to any type of behaviour is through twin studies. There are two types of twins. Monozygotic or identical, twins share 100 percent of their genetic material since they are formed from only one fertilised egg, which has divided into two. Dizygotic or (fraternal) twins share only 50 per cent of genetic material since they occur when two eggs are fertilised by different sperm at the same time. If, the reasoning goes, one of a pair of monozygotic twins has a disorder, it would be expected that, if genes are the only influence, the second twin must also have the disorder. The influence of the nervous and endocrine systems on behaviour The autonomic nervous system produces its effects through activation of nerve fibres throughout the nervous system, brain and body or by stimulating the release of hormones from the endocrine glands (such as the adrenal and pineal glands). Hormones are biochemical substances that are released into the bloodstream and have a profound effect on target organs and on behaviour. They are present in very small quantities and individual molecules have a very short life, so their effects quickly disappear if they are not secreted continuously. There are a large number of hormones including: Melatonin, which is released by the pineal gland and acts on the brainstem sleep mechanisms to help synchronise the phases of sleep and activity. Testosterone, which is released in the testicles and may influence aggressiveness. Oxytocin, which is released by the pituitary gland and stimulates milk production and female orgasms. Some hormones are released as a response to external stimuli. For example, the pineal gland responds to  reduced daylight by increasing production of melatonin. Other hormones follow a circadian rhythm, with one peak and one trough every 24 hours. (Circadian means ‘about a day’ and refers to a 24 hour rhythm). For instance, levels of cortisol rise about an hour before you wake up and contribute to your feelings of wakefulness or arousal.

The balance of payments is the main measure of import and exports in Essay

The balance of payments is the main measure of import and exports in the UK. For some years the balance of payment s has been in - Essay Example Additionally, an accurate balance of payment deficit must make provisions for errors and omissions to account for the missed out data. When there is a disequilibria in the balance of payments as a result of certain sections of the balance of payments being in deficit, then we can conclude that an economy’s balance of payments is deficit. This in most cases occurs with respect to deficits in a countries and to a smaller extent trade deficits. This is theoretically explained by the fact that for equilibrium to be reached, there must be a balance between capital/ current accounts values and the financial account. This therefore explains the UK situation is that if there is a deficit in current account then there must be a surplus on the capital/financial account (Nikolas 2010, p. 59). The ever persistent UK current account deficit can be traced to mid-1980s with a review of the current account revealing that the imports of goods and services exceed their exports. A critical revie w of the values of balance of payment account observed from the first quarter of the year 2000 to the last quarter of this year show a deteriorating current account. The study reveals a current deficit of over 12 billion pounds as at the last quarter of 2012 translating to a 3.2% of the GDP. ... This is majorly attributed to the process of de-industrialisation which accelerated in the early 1980s. A growth in consumer spending that UK been experiencing is majorly as a result of rapid increase in the imports leading to the worsening of the current account. Looking at the 1980s boom, it is evident that the fall in the rate of savings and the resulting rise in the consumer spending of the UK citizens led to the record deficit in current accounts. On the other hand, the recession experienced in 1991 which resulted to the consequent improvement in the current account improvement and subsequent falling in the spending on imports (Guillermo 1978). Another important reason that can be attributed to the deficit in balance of payments is the overvalued exchange rates. This, apart from, other countries like Spain, Greece and Portugal can be attributed to the large account deficits in the countries as it makes exports from the countries more expensive in the international markets while the imports becomes cheaper. This is a motivation to the local consumers to purchase of the imports which are relatively cheap while on the other hand making the market tougher for the exporters since it makes them uncompetitive in the market compared to exporters from other countries. With overvalued exchange rate, there are expectations of general competitiveness in amongst various firms. A decline in relative competitiveness coupled with rising costs, poor quality of goods and industrial unrests which results to difficulties in making exportations which causes deterioration of the current account of the UK (Stijn 1988). Various economists have attribute

Discussion Question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 25

Discussion Question - Assignment Example These are optional and vary depending on the terms agreed between the employee and the insurance company or bank. Employers have to be aware of the amount they are required to withhold from each employee. According to the Internal Revenue Service (2015), employers determine the amount to withhold based on the employee’s earnings and the information in the employee’s W-4 form (Internal Revenue Service, para 5). The W-4 form is also referred to as the Employee’s Withholding Allowance Certificate. It specifies the person’s marital status and the withholding allowances they have, thus determining the amount to be withheld by the employer. The most common reason a company can choose to buy back bonds before their maturity period is due to declining interest rates because bond prices are usually inversely proportional to interest rates. The company may or may not benefit from this action depending on the terms agreed in the bond’s indenture. For instance, the company can pay outstanding debts with a lower rate coupon issue after redeeming the bond. However, if the call price is very high, the company may be at a disadvantage; as they may be forced to pay more than if they waited for the bond to

Comparison Contrast essay of Foreign and domestic automobiles

Comparison Contrast of Foreign and domestic automobiles - Essay Example Nissan, Honda and Toyota are the dominant forces in Japan, they make automobiles which perform very consistently and are equipped with the latest technology. The likes of Volkswagen, BMW and Mercedes Benz are the dominant forces in Europe, they make fine cars like Audi, Mercedes and other very popular cars, there are several types of Audis, and there are luxury cars, SUVs which sell like hot cakes. â€Å"Slightly more Americans now say the United States makes better-quality vehicles than Asia does, with 38 percent saying U.S. cars are best and 33 percent preferring autos made by Asian companies, according to an Associated Press-GfK Poll.† (Foreign Cars) Toyota specifically stands out because the company follows a comprehensive system of TQM which stands for total quality management, the whole line of production can easily be stopped should any problems be discovered, this has often saved the company from launching automobiles which have had safety problems unlike Honda and a few other companies. Ford, a leading American company has been very successful because they have been making affordable cars but these cars are complete misfits when they come up against foreign cars. Quality does not come cheap is an age old clichà ©, some of the high end models of European and Asian automobiles are far better than American cars, these cars are safer equipped with airbags and other high tech safety equipment, these cars are faster but these cars are not inexpensive. ... General Motors is a big American company which has had some serious financial problems in the past, these financial problems cropped up simply because the company was not making enough profits, these problems may occur in the future considering the highly competitive nature of the automobile industry. Camry manufactured by Toyota which is a foreign automobile company has been bought by countless Americans, it has been the bestselling car in America for almost a decade now, this goes to show the increasing popularity of foreign cars in America. â€Å"Cities in Middle America — places such as St. Louis, Cleveland and, of course, Detroit — have the highest percentage of American car buyers. In Detroit, for example, 67 percent buy American.† (Austin Business Journal) This quote from a very popular journal sheds light upon how only in a few selected areas do buyers buy American cars whereas the reach of foreign cars can be seen in almost all the areas and regions, thi s goes to show the widespread reach of foreign cars and the limited reach of domestic automobiles. â€Å"Toyota averages about 50 percent, he said, and imports about a million vehicles a year into the U.S. from Japan. Domestic content may decrease gradually." (Drive Blog Journal) The increasing demand of automobiles manufactures by Toyota has been highlighted time and again in this paper, the more this car gets importer into the US, the more it will capture the market share. This would mean that domestic automobile companies like GM and others would have to face increasing difficulty and a very competitive environment in the near future. Honda also exports a lot of cars into the US and it is again a very big competitor for the domestic automobile companies. â€Å"For some buyers, the concept of buying an

Building Bridges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Building Bridges - Essay Example In this case, Erin is lecturing about how time can be maximally used to produce a high output. The cost used to set up a project should be realistic and should have returns. Every business or project management aims at making profits (output) and time and cost are the core factors for a profitable output (Beierwaltes). The On starting a project, one should first construct a WBS (work breakdown structure). A WBS consists of a schedule on how the project will progress and the time assigned to ach task in the project. There are three constraints on a project, i.e., time, scope, and the cost. The scope is results that are expected from the project and time constraint is the scheduled time to complete a given task. Cost is the primary constraint in the discussion because it is the amount of capital available for a company to complete its project successfully. The Cost must be budgeted at the beginning of a project, and it should have an excess. The reason is; if after a long period there will be mismanagement of funds, then the excess capital will be used to complete the

Proposal Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Proposal Assignment - Essay Example Where lunch is provided, the stakeholders do little to ensure that the diet is healthy. In this case, students end up getting food for the sake of food where balanced diet is not emphasized. As a result, students perform poorly in their exams because they are not healthy enough to absorb education work due to malnutrition and lack of concentration due to conditions resulting from poor diet. Therefore, there is a need for the mainstream stakeholders in the education sector at the district level to ensure that healthy lunches are given to students at all costs. The Problem Most schools do not offer healthy lunch meals to students and this affects their concentration in class as well as their performance. According to Jan Sheehan (2011: 2) a well balanced diet is crucial for any young child or teenager. This is essential considering of the high metabolism required by their growing bodies. The research further illustrates that the brain develops faster and at a high rate at the younger a ge as compared to older age. Therefore, deficiency of some food components such as omega 3 fatty acid induce sleep hence lack of concentration in class and other daily activities. Moreover, omega 3 fatty acid reduces behavioral problems that interfere with concentration in older kids. The research further proves that intake of iron deficient food exposes the child to fatigue and lack of concentration, therefore, the child is induced to sleep or dose in class. Moreover, poor eating habits such as eating too much of sugar and fats leads to energy dips. Such meals will lead to slow alertness because the blood flows to the stomach from the brain organs. The same effect is also a high factor of child obesity amongst other ailments. These are some of the issues that can arise when children do not get healthy diet and especially lunch meals. It is therefore, significant to observe the health problems attached to the mentioned unhealthy diet. As a result of poor diet malnutrition becomes a problem because it affects the educational sector as whole. For instance, poorly fed children are prone to diseases hence leading to high mortality rate or early school drop-outs. Students who do not get healthy means are less motivated and perform poorly in class. As a result, a lot of money is wasted catering for medical bills plus many other problems. The Solution or Plan It is true that a healthy balanced diet is the one that constitutes all vital components as a whole. Proteins are vital for body building, vitamins help in fighting diseases, and carbohydrates on the other hand provide energy to the bodies. It is important to note that every meal should consist of the named components, if they will be of help especially for students. The identified problem will be solved by availing the balanced diet everyday to the students at a convenient time during their lunch meals as it is determined by the school. The following measures will be taken in the preparation of the lunch meal; 1. There will be nutritionist to advice on the components of diet to be included in the meals 2. The nutritionist will ensure that accessible and affordable diet is incorporated to avoid the high cost of operation 3. The lunch means will vary throughout the week so as to serve students with a variety of meal dishes 4. Junk food will be avoided and meals will constitute of lots of fruits, vegetables and whole meals which are

Portfolio Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Portfolio - Assignment Example They are a similar, and at the same time different aspect of assessing performance. Venn (2000) defines an assessment portfolio as a systematic collection of artifacts that uses a selection of work, measured against pre-determined scoring criteria, to evaluate a person’s skills, achievements and growth over a specified period of time. Student portfolios are designed with the main objective of efforts, achievements and progress of the students. Purposes Portfolios are used for various purposes. They provide a collection of student work that aids in assessing the quality of the past or ongoing performance of the student. Moreover, they help in demonstration of achievements that is essential to students as it helps them demonstrate the capability to master chief topics in a program. Design and Format Portfolios come in different formats and designs. The format to use is determined by the type of material included, intended use of the portfolio and the target audience. Regardless of the format, all portfolios must contain the name of the student, a brief introduction about the student, several pieces of work selected using criteria specified carefully and fields where progress in the selected work is recorded over a period of time. Students may also choose to give an explanation on the reasons behind the selection of the subjects as well as specify criteria for evaluating the quality of the work. Types of portfolios As discussed earlier, portfolios come in a variety of types depending on the kind of material included, intended use of the portfolio and the target audience. Danielson and Abrutyn (1997) suggest that there are three main types of portfolios; working, display and assessment portfolios. (a) Working Portfolios As the name suggests, it contains work in progress as well as finished work samples. It acts as a store for this work in progress that may be selected later on for a more permanent assessment. It is an intentional collection of work that is g uided by learning objectives and differs from a work folder. Its main audience is the student, guided by the teacher. (b) Display/ Showcase Portfolios This is among the most rewarding use of student portfolios and is used to display the best works of the students. The students and their teachers become committed to the process most when they exhibit their best work and infer the meaning. The core objective of this type of portfolio is to demonstrate the highest achievement level attained by the student. It may be maintained yearly with new work samples being added yearly to document growth. (c) Assessment Portfolios They are designed primarily to document what a student has learned and may be used to demonstrate the student’s mastery in a certain curricular area, the quality of the student’s work as well as the level of growth and effort, attitude and progress. The work selected for the portfolio is determined by the content in the student’s curriculum. Advantag es of assessment portfolios An assessment portfolio can have a lot of benefits to users when designed and implemented properly. The following are some of these benefits. (a) Promotes reflection, self evaluation and critical thinking among the students. (b) Provides flexibility when measuring how students achieve the set learning goals (c) Facilitates sharing of responsibility (among students and teachers) for setting goals and evaluating progress to meeting the set goals. (d) Provides a process for structuring

Theoires Of International Political Economy Essay

Theoires Of International Political Economy - Essay Example This essay discusses that Karl Marx, who was a staunch communist and opponent of capitalism, developed the Marxism theory. He highlighted that capitalism introduced a system governed by money. This aspect divided the society into two classes. Those who had money as well as a means of production qualified as the capitalists, which he referred to as the bourgeoisie and the laborers whom he called the proletariat. The laborers did not have the capital and were hence unable to access a means of production. The purpose of the capitalists was to ensure that their systems registered the highest profits but minimal costs. This means that they were only willing to pay little wages to the laborers. On the other hand, the laborers purposed to get the highest possible wage while doing the least work possible. Evidently, the needs for both classes were contrary to each other a factor that introduced class conflicts as Marx highlighted. As described above, different historians and economists descr ibed the three economic theories. Their relevance in the modern day cannot receive any form of underestimation. Different historians have highlighted that Mercantilism is of significance because it highlights the specific roles that a strong state should play if it is to promote the economic stability and the reinforcement of liberal rules across the globe. On the other hand, there is evidence that Marxism answers the increasing questions on why there is under development in third world countries.

Differnent types of document creating software Essay Example for Free

Differnent types of document creating software Essay Layering – when within the same file you place images stacked on top of each other   Template- a standard document with pre-set layouts and formats.   Justification – adding extra spaces to text to align the edges so that the lines begin / end at the same place on a page . You can left / right / centre / fully justified   Orientation – which way the page is orientated – landscape or portrait   Wizard- a user interface which presents the user with a sequence of dialogue boxes which guide the user through the task .    Font style- a set of printable /displayable text character/s in a specific style and size. Footer – an area set aside at the bottom of each page   Mail merge – a word processing feature that allows users to personalise letters with names/addresses from a database   Web-authoring software – a web authoring package that is designed to allow you to create web pages and web sites   Resizing – alter the size of an image   Rotating – moving   Shearing – putting two images together to make an optical illusion Cropping – removing parts you don’t want Editing- changing or correcting 5 features of a PPT that could NOT be used in a written report 1. Audio 2. Images. 3. Sound 4. Colours 5. Animations Spell check is used to highlight incorrect spellings so they can be corrected . Compares words entered with words in a dictionary. After spell check the documents like needs to be proof-read because even if the spellings are right , the sentence may not make sense. 3 features of web authoring software you could use to create a website   Creating headings and subheadings   Inserting links Views – standard (similar to word processor screen) , code view (HTML) , Split view (Both views) Ways to transfer images from a database to a website: Copy and pasting   Importing CAD – stands for Computer aided design . It is the use of technology for designs . It is usually used by architects . Buildings can be designed using it. CAD advantages:   You can be more accurate than hand drawing   You can save/ edit ideas so it’s easier/cheaper to modify   You can edit existing ideas which saves time. Describe 3 features of DTP software that could be used when designing a leaflet: 1. Text- can be styled using fonts and colours 2. Background colours- can be changed for blocks of text/images. 3. Page layout templates- each page can have the same layout. Describe 3 features of a website that enable customers to purchase goods online: There’s a shopping cart where you can add all your items and there’s a total sum   There’s an option to set up an account this is so returning customers do not need to re-enter information   Between the retailers website and the bank the payment is made , the data is encrypted. Describe 5 features of word-processing software you might use to make the information clearer   text wrapping – the text can be arranged an image so it’s easier to read. Bold   Italics   Underlining text   Colours Web 2. 0 is the point at which the Internet became truly interactive, with users becoming the most important component of many sites. This benefits as they are able to get Greater knowledge and better marketing. Applications that use this are RSS and Twitter. Describe how you can use ICT to create and use charts when presenting data from a spreadsheet. You can enter all your information into an excel document with all the headings along the top and the information in rows below. Then you select all the cells containing information and go to â€Å"insert† and then select the chart you want. Once the chart has been added in you can go to â€Å"chart design† and modify the chart . What is the most suitable type of software for each of these task:   Write a letter to customers word processing software   Create a leaflet about tennis lessons- DTP   Create a web page that allows customers to place orders online- Web Authoring Software   Editing digital images – graphics software   Storing student’s details- Data handling software Present information to sales staff – presentation software   Produce a mail-merged series of letters – Database CAM- Computer aided design is a software used by engineers and architects to control machine tools in the manufacturing of work pieces. You can create a precise drawing on CAD and then make that 2D design physical by using CAM to make the object. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Communications section.

Eleanor Roosevelt Essay Example for Free

Eleanor Roosevelt Essay Eleanor Roosevelt will always be remembered in history as the first woman to make a difference in the status of first lady. She was born in 1884 and died in 1962 and all through her life showed tremendous courage in facing what happened to her. Her childhood may be seen as having influenced her later life. It is considered to have been influential in shaping her life and her approach towards the problems evident in society. She was born in a very wealthy family because both sides of her family were very wealthy and also renowned families. However, her adult life defied the expectations of her class in society. She did not behave as the rest of her class members did. She did what they would not do due to their status in society. She was born Anna Eleanor Roosevelt in 1884 to Anna Hall and Elliot Roosevelt in New York. Her mother was famous for her beauty and was disappointed in Eleanor’s looks because she was not as beautiful or graceful as she wanted her to be. As a result, they did not become close in the short time they spent together. Her father was the younger brother to President Theodore who later actually gave Eleanor in her wedding since her parents were already dead by then (http://www. pbs. rg). Her mother died in 1892 when Eleanor was only 8 years old. Her relationship with her father was a bit better because he did not criticize her looks. They were however not very close because of marital problems experienced between him and Anna and hence ended up not communicating a lot with Eleanor. After the death of her mother, she moved in with her maternal grandmother and hence, instead of closing the rift between her and her father this ended up widening it. He died in 1894 when she was 10 years old due to drinking related problems. His behavior had led to his being disowned by his family. She had private tutors until the age of 15 when she joined Allenwood a finishing school where she met her mentor Madame Marie Sourvesre. She traveled all over Europe with her and she was the one who taught Eleanor â€Å"the lifestyle of an independent woman† (PBS 1999). She returned to New York at the age of 18. She became a social worker and it is at this time that she met Franklin Delano Roosevelt who was her fifth cousin. She got married in March 17, 1905 to Franklin D. Roosevelt. She introduced him to the world of poor people during their courtship when she was working as a social worker. Due to her the emotional problems she faced in her childhood as a result of the lack of affection from both her mother and father, she was able to give unto others unconditional love regardless of their status in life. She was also greatly affected by the constant reference people made in regards to beauty and the fact that she knew she was not a great beauty. This was carried on even in her engagement where she was not sure if she could maintain a marriage to her husband who was handsome where she whereas she was plain (http://www. drlibrary. marist. edu). She had very many accomplishments that started early in life even before her status as first lady. Although earlier in life she had not been interested in politics, she later became interested because she did not want to seem ignorant among her peers. The presence of her domineering mother-in-law led to her having more time to dedicate to her functions because her 6 children were watched by Sarah the mother-in-law. She wanted to continue having the status that she had achieved under the tutelage of Madame Souvestre. She felt that as long as she was around Sarah she would not be able to accomplish what she wanted to and so would involve herself in many activities in order to escape her (http://www. fdrlibrary. marist. edu). During World War 1, she volunteered both in the American Red Cross and also in the Navy hospitals. She worked tirelessly to help those afflicted by the war even though she did not like the war or even the idea of war. In 1920, she became an active member of the women’s suffrage movement. In an effort to fight for women and also enlighten them on their rights, she joined the League of Women Voters and became the vice president of its New York branch. In this group, she was able to encourage women to become voters and fought for the right of women to vote. The law allowing women to vote was passed in 1920. This was also made possible by the Women’s Division of the Democratic Party of which she was also a member. She was also a member of the Women’s Trade Union League which looked into the working conditions of women and fought for the improvement of the same. It also fought for the acceptance of women in the employment field. She was very concerned about women issues and would fight for them in any way possible. She also went ahead to establish Todhunter which was a private school for girls only. She co-owned it with her friend and became its assistant principal and also a teacher of history yet she had no formal certificate. She did this because she had admired Souvestre and wanted to follow in her footsteps. This happened in 1927. In 1918, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was discovered by Eleanor to be having an affair with her social secretary Mercer. She discovered love letters between the two. She threatened him with divorce if he did not end the affair. He promised he would and hence saved the marriage albeit his mother was involved. Although the marriage was saved, Eleanor became a different woman who channeled her energies to many situations that both took her time and also enlightened her more to women’s independence. It is also at this time that she joined the various women organizations and became very close to the women she was working with. In 1921, Franklin suffered from poliomyelitis which left paralyzed in both legs and his mother advised him to become a recluse. She wanted him to remain in Hyde-Park but Eleanor encouraged him to keep interested in politics. He took her advice and Eleanor would act as his informant gathering information from the citizens and giving it to him and discussing the various issues with him. He appeared in public on crutches in 1924 to nominate Governor Alfred E. Smith for president. This was all Eleanor’s doing because she was the one who encouraged him (Lash J. P. Eleanor 1972 pg 550-680). In the process of becoming his eyes and ears, on the ground, she ended up becoming an independent woman and this helped her deal with the hurt of her husband’s infidelity. She realized there was a problem of unemployment and this led her to form the Val-Kill furniture factory. This was in New York and its aim was to provide employment especially to those who were suffering from unemployment yet could learn skills that would provide an income for them. Later on the industry widened its activities to involve weaving and also pewter work. This impressed her husband very much and in the long run encouraged her to spend more and more time there. Franklin through her encouragement ran for governorship of New York and he was elected in 1928. He served in office up to 1933. In all this time, Eleanor would help him make legislations that were progressive. She did this by ensuring that she corresponded with the New York residents an understood their problems. She would also travel very much and in these travels would inspect the state institutions and report to Franklin what was going on and in what ways the issues could be resolved. Her work is what led to the re-election of her husband as a governor for a second term and also his nomination to become president. This is because he sued the information she had gathered to help improve the lives of the common people. Franklin became president in March 4 1933 and consequently Eleanor became America’s first lady. She did not approach this situation confidently since she was apprehensive on its impact in her life as an independent woman. Despite this, she adapted to the role quickly and actually went down in history as the longest serving first lady because Franklin was president from 1933-1945. Once she became first lady, she continued providing various opportunities for women she did this by holding press conferences where only female reporters were invited. It is through these conferences that she kept the public informed about the policies in the white house especially the New Deal which was supposed to help in the recovery from the depression (http://www. lkwdpl. org). In line with the effects of the depression, she persuaded FDR to create the National Youth Administration. This organization was supposed to help young people who due to the effects of the depression could either not join or complete their studies. They could only manage to do this if they had jobs which in turn affected their studies. She became the adviser to those who held the administration posts and also spoke on behalf of the program. She was also involved with the American Youth Congress which was also concerned with matters of the youth. She got involved with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. This is because she no longer held the view of white supremacy and viewed everyone as equals. She understood the plight of the black people in America and worked hard to ensure their rights were recognized and respected. She also worked with the National Council of Negro Women to help the black women. Her stand was made clear when she resigned from being a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1939 because they had refused to allow Marian Anderson, who was a musician, to perform at Constitution Hall (http://www. pbs. org). At this time, the Second World War was starting off and although she detested war, she became involved in it because her sons were fighting in the war. During this time, she made numerous visits to England and also to the South Pacific. This she did in order to promote the good-will that was there among the allies. She also visited the United States troops that were abroad in order to boost their confidence and lift their spirits. She worked to rally civilian volunteerism to which she had been appointed as assistant director of the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) a post to which she had been appointed by Franklin. She however resigned from it later on due to complaints made about the people she appointed to work with her. FDR died in April 12 1945 and although she had assumed that her public life was over, she was proved wrong by the then president Harry S. Truman. He appointed her as a delegate in the United States Delegation to the United Nation’s General Assembly. In this capacity, she worked hard to ensure that the issues that pertained to social, humanitarian and cultural issues were dealt with. She held this position up to 1953 when she resigned. In this period, she was also the chairman of the Human Rights Commission and it is during her tenure that the Declaration of Human Rights was drafted. The declaration was adopted by the General Assembly on 10th December 1948. Her greatest achievement can be said to be the Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration emphasized the equality of all people regardless of their race, creed, color or gender. It therefore protected the way people that Eleanor had spent her whole life trying to protect and also improve their lives. It declared the right to life, liberty and equality to all people. It therefore meant that the poor, minorities and the disadvantaged were to be treated the same as those who were previously deemed to be superior. Through it, she was able to help the blacks, the women and those who were poor (Lash J. P. Eleanor 1972 pg 550-680). In the same year of 1948, she helped in the establishment of the state of Israel. This she did because she had always been sympathetic to the experience of the Jews at the hands of Adolph Hitler during the Second World War. She did not harbor ill feelings towards the Jews as did the rest of the upper-class. She also provided her help because she viewed herself first and foremost as a United Nations delegate whose work was to promote peace the world over. As a UN delegate, she also tried to establish negotiations with the Soviet Union although she was very cautious. This failed because they did not respect the Human Rights Declaration. From 1953, she volunteered as a member of the American Association for the United Nations. She did this in the capacity of a representative to the World Federation of United Nations. Later on she became the chairman of the Associations’ Board of Directors. John F. Kennedy reappointed her to the United States Delegation to United Nation in 1961. He also appointed her as a member of the National Advisory Committee of the Peace Corps and also the chairman of the President’s Commission on the status of women. She took on these responsibilities gladly as she was well versed with the operations of each (http://www. bs. org). In her lifetime, she had been involved in writing a daily column in the paper, which started in 1935 up to a few days prior to her death in 1962. This column was called â€Å"My Day†. She also started some question and answer column in the newspapers. She managed to write several books during her lifetime which are: This Is My Story (1937), This I Remember (1950), On My Own (1958), and Tomorrow Is Now (1963). Her last book was produced post humously and in it she praised Franklin for the social reforms he had put in place. She died in Nov 7 1962 and thus did not see it published. She was a lady who affected the western civilization in many ways. She proved that a woman can be able to perform remarkably in politics while still maintaining her dignity. The fact that she was able to accept every person regardless of their status in life led to the formation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration opened the people’s eyes to the fact that all human beings are equal even if they come from different areas in life. She established that one has to be able to deal with what they cannot change and should not be judged by what is beyond their power to correct or change (Lash J. P.  Eleanor 1972 pg 550-680). She also exhibited that regardless of how high and mighty one’s family may be and also despite the wealth they have, anyone can be able to make a difference in the lives of those who are victimized and destitute. The western people held a lot of prejudice towards Jews and blacks and she went a long way to try and bridge the gap that existed by not having such prejudices. She also set the role that the other first ladies in America and world over ought to follow. They are not supposed to just sit back and watch what their husbands do but instead should get involved and learn as much as possible and help them out. On the question of how she affected the society, she did a lot to help women get the right to vote. She also encouraged the women to seek employment and provided any opportunity possible to women to ensure that they succeeded. She was also very concerned about the youth and their education. She valued education and ensured that through the formation of the National Youth Association that the American youth would be able to access quality formal education without the problems of having to search for a job. The various trips she made to meet the common man made her understand the problems that they faced everyday. She got to understand the impact of unemployment and also that of the Great Depression. She would give this information to Franklin and also suggest the various ways in which he could help solve the problems (http://www. pbs. org). The creation of the Val-Kill was intended to provide employment to those in New York who needed it yet could not get it. She therefore helped uplift the living standards of many Americans by providing employment and also avenues through which they could provide employment for themselves and for others. The face of the government changed from her time to include more women. The fact that women become voters meant that more women had chances of being voted in because they were voted in by their fellow women. She proved that women can be very good politicians and diplomats. As a U. N delegate she kept making attempts to bring about negotiations between America and the Soviet Union. Although she never succeeded in bridging this gap, she tried her best.

Tunku Abdul Rahman

Tunku Abdul Rahman Who is Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Alhaj was born on February 8 1903 at Istana Pelamin, Alor Setar, Kedah. He was the twentieth child and seventh son of Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah, the twenty-fourth Sultan of Kedah.1 His mother on the other hand, Paduka Seri Cik Manjalara was the daughter of a Siamese nobleman, Luang Noraborirak. In 1909, Abdul Rahman received his early education at a Malay Primary School before being tranferred to the Government English School, which is currently known as the Sultan Abdul Hamid College. Following that, he was sent to the Debsirin School in Bangkok. A Kedah State Scholarship awarded to him in 1920 took him to England to further his studies. In England, he read History and Law at St. Catherines College, Cambridge. He successfully obtained his Bachelor of Arts Degree in 1925. While studying at England itself, his flair for leadership was made apparent due to the lack of representation of Malay students at the institution by any clubs or organisations. Abdul Rahman remedied the problem by establishing the Kesatuan Melayu Great Britain (Malay Association of Great Britain). He held the post of Secretary. Upon his return to Malaya, he served the Kedah Civil Service as a cadet in the Legal Advisors Office. Following that, he served as a District Officer in Kuala Nerang, Langkawi, Sungai Petani, and finally in Kulim.2 Abdul Rahman was the only Malay District Officer at that time. This made him widely unpopular amongst many British officials. However, no action was taken by the British Administration in Kedah, as he was of royal lineage. Unfortunately, his attempt at completing his legal studies at the Inner Temple in England came to a halt due to the outbreak of World War II. He resumed his studies at the Inner Temple soon after and qualified for the Bar. On his return to Malaya, he was appointed as a Deputy Public Prosecutor. During the nationalistic battle against the Malayan Union, Tunku Abdul Rahman joined the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). He proved to be very popular amongst party members and was later on appointed as Chairman of UMNO Kedah in 1948. On August 26 1951, Tunku became the UMNO President. Following that, he formed a political alliance with the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA). This political alliance was later joined by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) in 1955. This political alliance was called the Alliance Party. That same year, the Alliance Party won the first federal general elections. Tunku Abdul Rahman was elected as the first Chief Minister of Malaya. In 1955, Tunku lead a delegation to England to negotiate with the British government for the independence of Malaya. This lead to the signing of the Independence Treaty at Lancaster House in London on February 8 1956.3 On the 31st of August 1957, the British flag was lowered in Kuala Lumpur and the Malaya flag was raised in its place. Tunku Abdul Rahman led the crowd at Dataran Merdeka in announcing Merdeka! (Independance). This will forever remain a historical moment in Malaysian history. It cannot be argued that one of Tunkus greatest acheivements was the formation of Malaysia, comprising of the Federation of Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore. However, due to several political issues, the federation of all these states, excluding Brunei was formed on the 16th of September 1963. Tunku Abdul Rahman was restyled as Prime Minister of Malaysia. 4 Unfortunately, the racial factor only worsened with the inclusion of Singapore, raising the Chinese population close to 40%.5 On August 7, 1965, Tunku Abdul Rahman announced to the Malaysian Parliament to vote yes on the resolution to remove Singapore from the federation. Singapore officially acheived independance on 9 August 1965. Following the racial riots of May 13, many UMNO leaders were critical of Tunku Abdul Rahmans leadership and an emergency committee, MAGERAN took power and declared a state of emergency. On 22 September 1970, Tunku Abdul Rahman was coerced into resigning as Prime Minister and was succeeded by Tunku Abdul Razak. Following that, he then resigned as UMNO President on June 1971 amidst severe opposition from the Young Turks, comprising of Mahathir Muhammad and Musa Hitam.6 Aside from the formation of Malaysia, Tunku also had a many other acheivements. Other than making Islam the state religion in 1960, he also established the Islamic Welfare Organisation (PERKIM), an organisation helping newly converted Muslims adjust to their lives as Muslims.7 Tunku also helped establish the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC), of which he was also the Secretary General. An avid sprtsman, Tunku was a huge fan of football. This led him to become the President of the Football Association of Malaya, President of The Asian Football Confederation and President of the Asian Badminton Confederation. He also supported Semangat 46, a splinter group of UMNO led by Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah.8 Tunku Abdul Rahman passed away on 6 December 1990 at the age of eighty-seven. He was laid to rest at the Langgar Mausoleum at Alor Setar. FOOTNOTE 1. Wikipedia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman, accessed 17 March 2010. 2. Sejarah Malaysia, Abdul Rahman Putra Alhaj, URL : http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm02spesifik_id=95ttl_id, accessed 17 March 2010. 3. Perdana.Org, Tunku Abdul Rahman, URL : http://www.perdana.org.my/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=184Itemid=124, accessed 17 March 2010 4. Prime Ministers if Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Alhaj, URL : http://www.primeministersofmalaysia.net/1.php, accessed 17 March 2010 5. Wikipedia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman, accessed 17 March 2010. 6. Wikipedia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, URL : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman, accessed 17 March 2010. 7. Network Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, URL : http://www.networkmalaysia.com/subtitle/people/TunkuAbdulRahman.htm, accessed 17 March 2010 8. State University.Com, Tunku Abdul Rahman (Putra Alhaj) Early life, Early political career, Road to independence, Prime Minister, Involvements in Islam, Later life, Family, URL : http://encyclopedia.stateuniversity.com/pages/22669/Tunku-Abdul-Rahman-Putra-Alhaj.html, accessed 18 March 2010.

The Summa Teologica By Thomas Essay -- essays research papers

The Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Born in Italy, Thomas Aquinas was one of the most educated men of his time. Aquinas, whose family were noble, was educated as a monk and later continued his education at the University of Naples followed by the University of Paris where he studied the ancient Greek thought of Aristotle. Educated in both philosophy and theology,Aquinas is thought to be one of the most important philosophers of Catholicism. One ofAquinas's most influential writings is the Summa Theologica. In this document, Aquinas clarifies four questions concerning the Church: Whether it can be demonstrated t Godexist? Whether it is always sinfuhatl to wage war? Whether it is lawful for Clerics and Bishops to fight? And whether it is lawful to fight on holy days? He answers each question thoroughly but indecisively; however, when he answers the second question it seems his conclusion have been manipulated in ways that can benefit the church without making them look double sided with their teachings. The second question is: Whether it is always sinful to wage war? In this question Aquinas states in his objection (1), 'It would seem that it is always sinful to wage war because punishment is not inflicted except for sin. Now those who wage war are threatened by our Lord with punishment; therefore, all wars are unlawful.'; (172) However, he justifies the act of war by giving three necessities. The first he mentions is only an au...

The Development of Racism Essay -- Slavery Racist Equality Segregation

The Development of Racism Slavery's twin legacies to the present are the social and economic inferiority it conferred upon blacks and the cultural racism it instilled in whites. Both continue to haunt our society. Therefore, treating slavery's enduring legacy is necessarily controversial. Unlike slavery, racism is not over yet. (Loewen 143) Racism can be defined as "any set of beliefs, which classifies humanity into distinct collectives, defined in terms of natural and/or cultural attributes, and ranks these attributes in a hierarchy of superiority and inferiority" (Blum 5). It can be directly linked to the past and still, centuries later, serves as a painful reminder that race continues to be one of the "sharpest and deepest divisions in American life" (Loewen 138). What were the causes of racism? How did it develop historically? In order to answer those complex questions, I plan to examine the conditions of America's history from colonialism to present day society. It was these conditions of America's past that promoted the development of racist practices and ideas that continue to be embraced by many to this day. The idea of superiority and inferiority of entire groups were largely the result of the encounters between the Europeans and the indigenous native peoples of the Americas. Christopher Columbus was one of the first individuals who played a chief role in the birth of both racism and slavery. Upon the so-called "discovery" of America, European self-consciousness rose to the point that Europeans began to notice the similarities between each other. "There were no 'white' people in Europe before 1492" (Loewen, 66). But after the beginning of transatlantic slave trade, Europeans began to "see 'white' ... ...mproved, especially as a result of the Civil Rights Movement, racial inequalities still remain; from income to IQ levels, to the number of the incarcerated and life expectancies. While Americans like to think of our country as the equal land of opportunity, clearly it is not. Racism continues to remain "our American Obsession" (Loewen 139). Works Cited Blum, Lawrence. I'm Not A Racist But: The Moral Quandary of Race. New York: Cornell University Press, 2002. 5 Chomsky, Noam. Understanding Power, The Indispensable Chromsky. Eds. Peter R. Mitchell and John Schoeffel. New York: New Press, 2002. 135. Loewen, James. Lies My Techer Told Me; Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. 60-169. Zinn, Howard. A Peoples History of the United States. New York: HaperCollins Publisher Inc., 1999. 25-33.